Holy Roman Emperor

The Holy Roman Emperor (historically Romanorum Imperator "Emperor of the Romans") was the ruler of the Holy Roman Empire.  The title was held in conjunction with the rule of the Kingdom of Germany. From an autocracy in Carolingian times the title evolved into an elected monarchy chosen by the prince-electors. The Holy Roman Emperor was widely perceived to be the deputy of Jesus Christ on Earth by Roman Catholic rulers in Europe, and he often contradicted or rivaled the Pope, most notably during the Investiture controversy. In theory, the Holy Roman Emperor was primus inter pares (first among equals) among other Catholic monarchs. In practice, a Holy Roman Emperor was only as strong as his army and alliances made him.  After the Reformation, many of the subject states in Germany turned Protestant while the Emperor continued to be a Roman Catholic. Until the Reformation, the Emperor elect (imperator electus) was required to be crowned by the Pope before assuming the imperial title. Various royal houses of Europe, at different times, became hereditary holders of the title. In particular the Habsburgs kept the longest possession of the title. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved by Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor as a result of the collapse of the polity during the Napoleonic wars. 

Title of the Holy Roman Emperor

From the time of Constantine I (4th century) the Roman emperors had, with very few exceptions, taken on a role as promoters and defenders of Christianity. The title of Emperor became defunct in Western Europe after the deposition of Romulus Augustulus in AD 476, although the rulers of the "barbarian kingdoms" continued to recognize the Eastern Emperor at least nominally well into the 6th century; both the title and connection between Emperor and Church continued in the Eastern Roman Empire until 1453, when it fell to the forces of the Ottoman Empire.

In the west, the title of Emperor (Imperator) was revived in 800, which also renewed ideas of imperial–papal cooperation. As the power of the papacy grew during the Middle Ages, popes and emperors came into conflict over church administration. The best-known and most bitter conflict was that known as the Investiture Controversy, fought during the 11th century between Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII.

After Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) by Pope Leo III, his successors maintained the title until the death of Berengar I of Italy in 924. No pope appointed an emperor again until the coronation of Otto the Great in 962. Under Otto and his successors, much of the former Carolingian kingdom of Eastern Francia fell within the boundaries of the Holy Roman Empire. The various German princes elected one of their peers as King of the Germans, after which he would be crowned as emperor by the Pope. After Charles V's coronation, all succeeding emperors were called elected Emperor due to the lack of papal coronation, but for all practical purposes they were simply called emperors.

The term "sacrum" (i.e. "holy") in connection with the medieval Roman Empire was first used in 1157 under Frederick I Barbarossa. Charles V was the last Holy Roman Emperor to be crowned by the Pope (1530). The final Holy Roman Emperor-elect, Francis II, abdicated in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars that saw the Empire's final dissolution.

The standard designation of the Holy Roman Emperor was "August Emperor of the Romans" (Romanorum Imperator Augustus). When Charlemagne was crowned in 800, he was styled as "most serene Augustus, crowned by God, great and pacific emperor, governing the Roman Empire," thus constituting the elements of "Holy" and "Roman" in the imperial title. The word Holy had never been used as part of that title in official documents.

The word Roman was a reflection of the principle of translatio imperii (or in this case restauratio imperii) that regarded the (Germanic) Holy Roman Emperors as the inheritors of the title of Emperor of the Western Roman Empire, despite the continued existence of the Eastern Roman Empire. In German-language historiography, the term Römisch-deutscher Kaiser ("Roman-German emperor") is used to distinguish the title from that of Roman Emperor on one hand, and that of German Emperor (Deutscher Kaiser) on the other. The English term "Holy Roman Emperor" is a modern shorthand for "emperor of the Holy Roman Empire" not corresponding to the historical style or title. 

Succession of the Holy Roman Emperors

Successions to the kingship were controlled by a variety of complicated factors. Elections meant the kingship of Germany was only partially hereditary, unlike the kingship of France, although sovereignty frequently remained in a dynasty until there were no more male successors. Some scholars suggest that the task of the elections was really to solve conflicts only when the dynastic rule was unclear, yet the process meant that the prime candidate had to make concessions, by which the voters were kept on side, which were known as Wahlkapitulationen (election capitulations).

The Electoral council was set at seven princes (three archbishops and four secular princes) by the Golden Bull of 1356. It remained so until 1648, when the settlement of the Thirty Years' War required the addition of a new elector to maintain the precarious balance between Protestant and Catholic factions in the Empire. Another elector was added in 1690, and the whole college was reshuffled in 1803, a mere three years before the dissolution of the Empire.

After 1438, the Kings remained in the house of Habsburg and Habsburg-Lorraine, with the brief exception of Charles VII, who was a Wittelsbach. Maximilian I (Emperor 1508–1519) and his successors no longer travelled to Rome to be crowned as Emperor by the Pope. Maximilian therefore named himself Elected Roman Emperor (Erwählter Römischer Kaiser) in 1508 with papal approval. This title was in use by all his uncrowned successors. Of his successors only Charles V, the immediate one, received a papal coronation.

The Holy Roman Emperors

This list includes all 47 emperors of the Holy Roman Empire, whether or not they styled themselves Holy Roman Emperor. There are some gaps in the tally. For example, Henry the Fowler was King of Germany but not Emperor; Emperor Henry II was numbered as his successor as German King. The Guideschi follow the numeration for the Duchy of Spoleto.

Carolingian dynasty

Traditional historiography assumes a continuity between the Carolingian Empire and the Holy Roman Empire, while a modern convention takes the coronation of Otto I in 962 as the starting point of the Holy Roman Empire (although the term Sacrum Imperium Romanum was not in use before the 13th century).

The rulers who were crowned as Emperors in the West before 962 were as follows:

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Charles I, the Great (Charlemagne) (742–814)	25 December 800	28 January 814		King of the Lombards King of the Franks
	Louis I, the Pious (778–840)	11 September 813	20 June 840	Son of Charles I	King of the Franks King of Aquitaine
	Lothair I (795–855)	5 April 823	29 September 855	Son of Louis I	King of Bavaria King of Italy King of Middle Francia
	Louis II (825–875)	29 September 855	12 August 875	Son of Lothair I	King of Bavaria King of Italy King of Middle Francia
	Charles II, the Bald (823–877)	29 December 875	6 October 877	Son of Louis I	King of West Francia King of Italy
	Charles III, the Fat (839–888)	12 February 881	13 January 888	Grandson of Louis I	King of West Francia King of East Francia King of Italy

Widonid dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Guy I (?–894)	891	12 December 894	Great-great grandson of Charles I	King of Italy Duke of Spoleto
	Lambert I (880–898)	30 April 892	15 October 898	Son of Guy I	King of Italy Duke of Spoleto

Carolingian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Arnulph (850–899)	22 February 896	8 December 899	Nephew of Charles III	King of Italy King of East Francia

Bosonid dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Louis III, the Blind (880–928)	22 February 901	21 July 905	Grandson of Louis II	King of Italy King of Provence

Unruoching dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Others title(s)
	Berengar I (845–924)	December 915	7 April 924	Grandson of Louis I	King of Italy Margrave of Friuli

There was no emperor in the west between 924 and 962. While earlier Germanic and Italian monarchs had been crowned as western Roman Emperors, the actual Holy Roman Empire is usually considered to have begun with the crowning of the Saxon king Otto I. It was officially an elective position, though at times it ran in families, notably the four generations of the Salian dynasty in the 11th century. From the end of the Salian dynasty through the middle 15th century, the Emperors drew from many different German dynasties, and it was rare for the throne to pass from father to son. That changed with the ascension of the Austrian House of Habsburg, as an unbroken line of Habsburgs would hold the Imperial throne until the 18th century, later a cadet branch known as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine would likewise pass it from father to son until the abolition of the Empire in 1806. Notably, the Habsburgs also dispensed with the requirement that emperors be crowned by the pope before exercising their office. Starting with Ferdinand I, all successive Emperors forwent the traditional coronation.

Ottonian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Otto I, the Great (912–973)	2 February 962	7 May 973	Great-great-great grandson of Louis I	King of Italy King of Germany Duke of Saxony
	Otto II, the Red (955–983)	25 December 967	7 December 983	Son of Otto I	King of Italy King of Germany
	Otto III (980–1002)	21 May 996	23 January 1002	Son of Otto II	King of Italy King of Germany
	Henry II (973–1024)	7 June 1002	14 February 1014	Second cousin of Otto III	King of Italy King of Germany Duke of Bavaria

Salian dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Conrad II, the Elder (990–1039)	26 March 1027	4 June 1039	Great-great-grandson of Otto I	King of Burgundy King of Italy King of Germany
	Henry III, the Black (1017–1056)	25 December 1046	5 October 1056	Son of Conrad II	King of Burgundy King of Italy King of Germany
	Henry IV (1050–1116)	31 March 1084	7 August 1106	Son of Henry III	King of Burgundy King of Italy King of Germany
	Henry V (1086–1125)	13 April 1111	23 May 1125	Son of Henry IV	King of Italy King of Germany

Supplinburg dynasty

Portrait	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
	Lothair II (1075–1137)	4 June 1133	4 December 1137	Far descendant of Otto I	King of Italy King of Germany

Staufen dynasty

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Frederick I Barbarossa (1122–1190)	8 June 1155	10 June 1190	Great-grandson of Henry IV	King of Germany King of Italy King of Burgundy
		Henry VI (1165–1197)	14 April 1191	28 September 1197	Son of Frederick I	King of Germany King of Italy King of Burgundy Co-King of Sicily

Welf dynasty

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Otto IV (1175–1218)	9 June 1198	1215	Great-grandson of Lothair II	King of Germany King of Italy King of Burgundy

Staufen dynasty

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Frederick II (1194–1250)	22 November 1220	13 December 1250	Son of Henry VI	King of Germany King of Italy King of Sicily King of Jerusalem
		Conrad IV (1228–1254)	13 December 1250	21 May 1254	Son of Frederick II	King of Germany King of Italy King of Sicily King of Jerusalem
		Conrad V (1252–1268)	21 May 1254	29 October 1268	Son of Conrad IV	King of Germany King of Italy King of Sicily King of Jerusalem

House of Luxembourg

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Henry VII (1274-1313)	29 June 1312	24 August 1313	Far descendant of Louis III	King of Germany King of Italy Count of Luxemburg

House of Wittelsbach

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Louis IV, the Bavarian (1282–1347)	October 1314	11 October 1347	Far descendant of Lothair II and Henry IV	King of Germany King of Italy Duke of Bavaria

House of Luxembourg

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Charles IV (1316–1378)	11 July 1346	29 November 1378	Grandson of Henry VII	King of Germany King of Italy King of Bohemia King of Burgundy Count of Luxemburg
		Sigismund (1368–1437)	10 September 1410	9 December 1437	Son of Charles IV	King of Germany King of Italy King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia

House of Habsburg

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Frederick III, the Peaceful (1415–1493)	2 February 1440	19 August 1493	Far descendant of Lothair II	King of Germany Archduke of Austria
		Maximilian I (1459–1519)	19 August 1493	12 January 1519	Son of Frederick III	King of Germany Archduke of Austria
		Charles V (1500–1558)	28 June 1519	16 January 1556	Grandson of Maximilian I	King of Germany King of Italy Archduke of Austria King of Spain Lord of the Netherlands and Duke of Burgundy
		Ferdinand I (1503–1564)	16 January 1556	25 July 1564	Grandson of Maximilian I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Maximilian II (1527–1576)	25 July 1564	12 October 1576	Son of Ferdinand I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Rudolph II (1552–1612)	12 October 1576	20 January 1612	Son of Maximilian II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Matthias (1557–1619)	23 January 1612	20 March 1619	Son of Maximilian II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Ferdinand II (1578–1637)	20 March 1619	15 February 1637	Grandson of Ferdinand I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Ferdinand III (1608–1657)	15 February 1637	2 April 1657	Son of Ferdinand II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Leopold I (1640–1705)	6 March 1657	5 May 1705	Son of Ferdinand III	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Joseph I (1678–1711)	5 May 1705	17 April 1711	Son of Leopold I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary King of Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Charles VI (1685–1740)	12 October 1711	20 October 1740	Son of Leopold I

House of Wittelsbach

Portrait	Coat of arms	Name	Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Charles VII (1697–1745)	12 February 1742	20 January 1745	Great-great grandson of Ferdinand II	King of Bohemia Elector of Bavaria

House of Habsburg-Lorraine

			Reign		Relationship with predecessor(s)	Other title(s)
		Francis I (1708–1765)	13 September 1745	18 August 1765	Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; Son-in-law of Charles VI	King of Germany Archduke of Austria Grand Duke of Tuscany Duke of Lorraine
		Joseph II (1741–1790)	19 August 1765	20 February 1790	Son of Francis I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia Archduke of Austria
		Leopold II (1747–1792)	21 February 1790	1 March 1792	Son of Francis I	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia Archduke of Austria Grand Duke of Tuscany
		Francis II (1768–1835)	4 March 1792	6 August 1806	Son of Leopold II	King of Germany King of Bohemia King of Hungary and Croatia Archduke of Austria

Coronation

The Emperor was crowned in a special ceremony, traditionally performed by the Pope in Rome. Without that coronation, no king, despite exercising all powers, could call himself Emperor. In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's first successor Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.

Emperor	Coronation date	Officiant	Location
Charles I	25 December 800	Pope Leo III	Rome, Italy
Louis I	5 October 816	Pope Stephen IV	Reims, France
Lothair I	5 April 823	Pope Paschal I	Rome, Italy
Louis II	15 June 844	Pope Leo IV	Rome, Italy
Charles II	29 December 875	Pope John VIII	Rome, Italy
Charles III	12 February 881		Rome, Italy
Guy III of Spoleto	21 February 891	Pope Stephen V	Rome, Italy
Lambert II of Spoleto	30 April 892	Pope Formosus	Ravenna, Italy
Arnulf of Carinthia	22 February 896		Rome, Italy
Louis III	15 or 22 February 901	Pope Benedict IV	Rome, Italy
Berengar	December 915	Pope John X	Rome, Italy
Otto I	2 February, 962	Pope John XII	Rome, Italy
Otto II	25 December, 967	Pope John XIII	Rome, Italy
Otto III	21 May, 996	Pope Gregory V	Monza, Italy
Henry II	14 February 1014	Pope Benedict VIII	Rome, Italy
Conrad II	26 March 1027	Pope John XIX	Rome, Italy
Henry III	25 December 1046	Pope Clement II	Rome, Italy
Henry IV	31 March 1084	Antipope Clement III	Rome, Italy
Henry V	13 April 1111	Pope Paschal II	Rome, Italy
Lothair III	4 June 1133	Pope Innocent II	Rome, Italy
Frederick I	18 June 1155	Pope Adrian IV	Rome, Italy
Henry VI	14 April 1191	Pope Celestine III	Rome, Italy
Otto IV	4 October 1209	Pope Innocent III	Rome, Italy
Frederick II	22 November 1220	Pope Honorius III	Rome, Italy
Henry VII	29 June 1312	Ghibellines cardinals	Rome, Italy
Louis IV	17 January 1328	Senator Sciarra Colonna	Rome, Italy
Charles IV	5 April 1355	Pope Innocent VI's cardinal	Rome, Italy
Sigismund	31 May 1433	Pope Eugenius IV	Rome, Italy
Frederick III	19 March 1452	Pope Nicholas V	Rome, Italy
Charles V	24 February 1530	Pope Clement VII	Bologna, Italy

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